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Urban Agriculture

Rooftop garden in Havana, Cuba Photo courtesy of Kate Hopfner (Agroecosystems group 3). The photograph shows a vegetable garden constructed on the roof of an apartment building in a poorer area of Havana. The owner started the garden by collecting discarded tires to use as containers. He acquired a job at a nursery where he would sweep the floors every evening and collect the soil to take home to accumulate for his garden. (Figure 1). rooftop  

Prepared by Nancy Simovic, 1998
Updated, March 2000 by Kristina Taboulchanas

Urban Agriculture

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See also: Case Study: Cienfuegos, Cuba

Overview

Urban agriculture refers to the practice of farming in a city environment. This practice of food production takes place on rooftops, in backyards, in community gardens and in vacant public spaces. It may sound like a rather modern concept however the city and the practice of farming have an ancient relationship. There is documentation of urban cultivation in the ancient cities of Mexico, Peking, London, Rome and Paris (Aipira. 1996). In the industrialized world, urban farming largely disappeared in this century, but in the developing world it has persisted and since the 1970's has shown signs of increase (Nelson. 1996). Today's global population is increasing with a rural to urban migration where increasing numbers of people are living in urban settings (Table 1). Urbanization has increased the demand on the quantity and efficiency of food production. Despite an increase in cultivation of food crops in cities around the world, urban agriculture has attracted very little attention in literature.

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Benefits of Urban Agriculture:

Originally urban agriculture was viewed as solely for subsistence purposes, however the production of crops directly in the city has many additional social, economic and ecological benefits. The following are some of these benefits:

    Social and economic benefits

  • It has the potential to alleviate two of the world's most crucial problems: poverty and waste (Nugent,1997). Third World countries will have the highest immigration into the urban areas (Nugent, 1997) and the contribution of urban agriculture to these cities has the potential to provide economic regeneration and stability to the population (Nugent, 1997; Garnett, 1996). Also, organic urban agriculture diverts nutrient rich waste from landfills or export and returns it to the land...
  • It promotes sustainable development by reducing the vulnerability of the world's urban populations to global ecological change (Rees, 1997).
  • Reduction in crime has been noted when gardening projects are implemented in urban centres. Youth acquire self-esteem, stay busy and feel useful when participating in these programs (Hargesheimer, 1998).
  • It enhances the recognition of women. In Bogota, Columbia, a cooperative of 100+ low-income women grow hydroponic vegetables on rooftops. The women's earning amount to three times more than what their husbands make in semi-skilled jobs (Nelson, 1996).
  • It restores peoples' connection to nature by instilling a sense of stewardship in the farmer (Garnett, 1996). This sense of ownership and care for the land gives the farmer a better appreciation of the land's natural processes. A sense of stewardship also creates a feeling of community between people which can facilitate further collective action on issues of local importance.
  • City farming improves the aesthestics of the city by increasing the 'green spaces' in an otherwise concrete landscape and also provides recreational opportunities for those who work the land (Nugent, 1997).
  • It improves nutrition. Produce is fresher and less damaged when grown and distributed locally.
  • It allows livestock production. The livestock typically raised in cities include poultry, birds, and smaller animals (Nugent, 1996). Livestock is used for soil amelioration, as a food source and for economic investment.

    Ecological Benefits

    Urban Agriculture contributes to the enhancement of Ecosystem Services in the following ways.

  • It closes the nutrient loop (Rees, 1997). Domestic organic waste can be composted and processed into the soil for added nutrients and soil structure.
  • Urban gardening contributes to the treatment of wastes.
  • Planting increased numbers of gardens in a city environment improves air quality close to pollution sources.
  • It results in shorter travel distance from producer to consumer. With less transportation of produce, less fuel is consumed by vehicles and less protective packaging is necessary for the produce (Rees, 1997; Nugent, 1997). This has environmental and health benefits.
  • Encourages the production of rare varieties of fruits and vegetables. Urban gardeners tend to cultivate a wider variety of crops, conserving unique cultivars and enhancing agricultural diversity (Murphy, 1999).
  • Urban gardens act as refugia for wildlife such as soil organisms, wild plants, insects, birds and amphibians thus increasing the biodiversity within the city environment (Rees, 1997). Rooftop gardens are known to attract numerous species of birds and insects to a space that would otherwise be void of any life.
  • The vegetation of urban gardens stabilises the soil within urban areas and prevents soil erosion by wind and runoff. Further, urban gardens contribute to the retention and storage of storm runoff.
  • Urban gardens play a role in climate regulation through the absorption of green house gases.

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Obstacles to Urban Farming:

  • As land is not usually owned by the farmer, it is most likely rented or borrowed which creates insecurity (Nugent. 1996)
  • There is a low degree of security or fear of theft if a farmer has planted a high value crop (Nugent, 1996).
  • Some city authorities do not want their cities to appear rural and farmers can face political and regulatory obstacles (Nugent, 1996).
  • Acquiring equipment and raw materials is difficult for the poor and is substituted with greater amounts of labour (Nugent, 1996).

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Key facts and figures

Statistics that relate the necessity of urban agriculture:

  • In 1950 30% of the population lived in cities and towns, in 1995 45% and it is projected that in 2000 one half of the world population will live in urban areas (Fournier, 1996)
  • Greater than 5 billion people will live in cities by 2025 (Nelson, 1996)
  • In Canada, our 390,575 farm operators comprised only 1.4% of the population in 1991 (Rees, 1997).
  • Up to a billion people on Earth today are chronically under-nourished (Rees, 1997).
  • In a 1988 census in Tanzania, urban farming was the second largest source of employment in Dar es Salam, providing work for 20% of the adult population (Garnett, 1996).
  • Although cities cover only 2% of Earth's surface, we use up to 75% of the world's resources (Garnett, 1996).

Figure 2. Collapsed Building in Havana, Cuba supports urban garden Photo courtesy of Kate Hopfner. The roof of this building collapsed and now just walls remain. A garden of vegetables requiring shade for some or most of the day is planted here as each area of the building floor receives limited sunlight. Food gardens in Havana now supply approximately 5% of the city's food and it is estimated that this could increase to 20% (Nelson. 1996). "Cuba has begun to promote urban agriculture to achieve nutritional self-efficiency in face of economic decline and the ongoing U.S. embargo" (Nelson. 1996). The urban gardening project in Cuba is sponsored by The Australian Conservation Foundation (Nelson. 1996). See also Chaplowe (1998). Collapsed Building

Table 1: Percent of Population Living in Urban Areas, by Region Data cited in Nugent. 1997, from UN, World Urbanization Prospects, 1994. Values are percentages.

Region 1970 1995 2025 (projection)
Less Developed 25.1 37.0 57.0
Africa 23.0 34.4 53.8
Asia (excl. Japan) 21.0 34.6 54.0
Latin America 57.4 73.7 84.7
Oceania (Excl. Australia, N.Z.) 18.0 24.0 40.0
More Developed 67.5 74.7 84.0
Australia-New Zealand 84.4 84.9 89.1
Europe 64.4 73.3 83.2
Japan 71.2 77.5 84.9
North America 73.8 76.1 84.8

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Important terms

Urban Agriculture
Food production occurring within the confines of cities; production which takes place in backyards, on rooftops, in community vegetable and fruit gardens and in unused or public spaces
(Nugent, 1997)
Ecosystem Services
Refers to a wide range of services that natural ecosystems and the species they contain provide that sustain and fulfill human life (http://www.cast-science.org/biod/biod_ch.htm); see also http://www.floridaplan ts.com/news/article.htm
City Farming
Same as urban agriculture (Garnett, 1996)
Urbanization
Becoming urbanized; changing from a rural to an urban state (http://www.dict.org/bin/Dict)
Stewardship
Positition of a steward; someone who manages property (http://www.dict.org/bin/Dict)
Subsistence
Minimum resources for existence; a means for surviving (http://www.dict.org/bin/Dict)

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Useful literature

  • Altieri, M., N. Companioni., K. Canizares., C. Murphy., P. Rosset., M. Bourque., and C. Nicholls. 1999 The greening of the "barrios": Urban agriculture for food security in Cuba . Agriculture and Human Values Vol. 16 pp. 131-140.

  • Baker, L. 2000. Warehouse Rooftop Supports Urban Agriculture. Business 22(2):16.

  • Boyden, S. 1996. The city: so human an ecosystem. Natural Resources: The UNESCO Journal on the Environment and Natural Resources Research 32(2):1-16.

  • Garnett, T. 1996. Farming the city: the potential for urban agriculture. The Ecologist 26(6): 299-307.

  • Losada, H., Martinez, H.,Cortes, J. 1998.Urban agriculture in the metropolitan zone of Mexico City: changes over time in urban, surburban and peri-urban areas. Environment and urbanization v 10(2):37.

  • Nelson, T. 1996. Closing the nutrient loop. World Watch.

  • Stanhill, G. 1977. An urban agro-ecosystem: the example of nineteenth century Paris. Agro-Ecosystems 3: 269.

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Useful links

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Cited Literature and Cited Links

  • Aipira, H. 1996. The city: so human an ecosystem. Natural Resources: The UNESCO Journal on the Environment and Natural Resources Research 32(2):1-16.
  • Chaplowe, S.G. 1998. Havana's popular gardens: sustainable prospects for urban agriculture. The Environmentalist 18: 47-57 
  • THE DICT DEVELOPMENT GROUP: ONLINE DISTIONARY QUERY
    (http://www.dict.org/bin/Dict) Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary, Comp. (1998, Febuary 28; Viewed Feb 2 2001)
  • Fournier, F. 1996. The city: so human an ecosystem. Natural Resources: The UNESCO Journal on the Environment and Natural Resources Research 32(2):1-16.
  • Garnett, T. 1996. Farming the city: the potential for urban agriculture. The Ecologist 26(6): 299-307.
  • THE IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE
    (http://www.cast-science.org/biod/biod_ch.htm) Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, Spons. (1999, February 26; Viewed 2 Feb. 2001)
  • Murphy, C. 1999. Cultivating Havana: Urban Agriculture and Food Security in the Years of Crisis. Institute for Food and Development Policy, Report No 12.
  • Nelson, T. 1996. Closing the nutrient loop. World Watch.
  • SIGNIFICANCE OF URBAN AGRICULTURE
    (http://www.cityfarmer.org/racheldraft.html#racheldraft) City Farmer, Spons. (1997, July 28; Viewed 2 Feb. 2001)
  • URBAN AGRICULTURE - GARDENING, MARKET GARDENING, MINI-FARMING AND MINI-RANCHING
    (http://www.homestead.org/urbanag.htm) The Agriculture Webring, Spons. (1996, March 6; Viewed 2 Feb. 2001)
                           

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